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Thick filaments. The larger, thick filaments, also called myosin filaments, are made mostly of bundled molecules of the protein myosin, but they also contain ATPase enzymes, which split ATP to generate the power for muscle contraction.

• Cross bridges. Notice that the midparts of the thick filaments are smooth, but their ends are studded with thick projections; these projections, or myosin beads, are called cross bridges when they link the thick and thin filaments together during contraction.

• Thin filaments. The thin filaments are composed of the contractile protein called actin, plus some regulatory proteins that play a role in allowing (or preventing) myosin-bead binding to actin; the thin filaments, also called actin filaments, are anchored to the Z disc (a disclike membrane).

• Sarcoplasmic reticulum. Another very important muscle fiber organelle is the sarcoplasmic reticulum, a specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum; the interconnecting tubules and sacs of the SR surround each and every myofibril just as the sleeve of a loosely crocheted sweater surrounds your arm, and its major role is to store calcium and to release it on demand.

Muscle Movements, Types, and Names

This section is a bit of a hodge-podge. It includes some topics that don’t really fit together, but they don’t fit anywhere else any better.



Types of Body Movements

Every one of our 600-odd skeletal muscles is attached to bone, or to other connective tissue structures, at no fewer than two points.

• Origin. One of these points, the origin, is attached to the immovable or less movable bone.

• Insertion. The insertion is attached to the movable bone, and when the muscle contracts, the insertion moves toward the origin.

• Flexion. Flexion is a movement, generally in the sagittal plane, that decrease the angle of the joint and brings two bones closer together; it is a type of hinge joints, but it is also common at ball-and-socket joints.

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Entrance to the heart. Blood enters the heart through two large veins, the inferior and superior vena cava, emptying oxygen-poor blood from the body into the right atrium of the heart.
• Atrial contraction. As the atrium contracts, blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle through the open tricuspid valve.
• Closure of the tricuspid valve. When the ventricle is full, the tricuspid valve shuts to prevent blood from flowing backward into the atria while the ventricle contracts.
• Ventricle contraction. As the ventricle contracts, blood leaves the heart through the pulmonic valve, into the pulmonary artery and to the lungs where it is oxygenated.
• Oxygen-rich blood circulates. The pulmonary vein empties oxygen-rich blood from the lungs into the left atrium of the heart.
• Opening of the mitral valve. As the atrium contracts, blood flows from your left atrium into your left ventricle through the open mitral valve.
• Prevention of backflow. When the ventricle is full, the mitral valve shuts. This prevents blood from flowing backward into the atrium while the ventricle contracts.
• Blood flow to systemic circulation. As the ventricle contracts, blood leaves the heart through the aortic valve, into the aorta and to the body.

Capillary Exchange of Gases and Nutrients
Substances tend to move to and from the body cells according to their concentration gradients.
• Capillary network. Capillaries form an intricate network among the body’s cells such that no substance has to diffuse very far to enter or leave a cell.
• Routes. Basically, substances leaving or entering the blood may take one of four routes across the plasma membranes of the single layer of endothelial cells forming the capillary wall.
• Lipid-soluble substances. As with all cells, substances can diffuse directly through their plasma membranes if the substances are lipid-soluble.

Veins Draining into the Superior Vena Cava
Veins draining into the superior vena cava are named in a distal-to-proximal direction; that is, in the same direction the blood flows into the superior vena cava.
• Radial and ulnar veins. The radial and ulnar veins are deep veins draining the forearm; they unite to form the deep brachial vein, which drains the arm and empties into the axillary vein in the axillary region.
• Cephalic vein. The cephalic vein provides for the superficial drainage of the lateral aspect of the arm and empties into the axillary vein.
• Basilic vein. The basilic vein is a superficial vein that drains the medial aspect of the arm and empties into the brachial vein proximally.
• Median cubital vein. The basilic and cephalic veins are joined at the anterior aspect of the elbow by the median cubital vein, often chosen as the site for blood removal for the purpose of blood testing.
• Subclavian vein. The subclavian vein receives venous blood from the arm through the axillary vein and from the skin and muscles of the head through the external jugular vein.
• Vertebral vein. The vertebral vein drains the posterior part of the head.
• Internal jugular vein. The internal jugular vein drains the dural sinuses of the brain.
• Brachiocephalic veins. The right and left brachiocephalic veins are large veins that receive venous drainage from the subclavian, vertebral, and internal jugular veins on their respective sides.
• Azygos vein. The azygos vein is a single vein that drains the thorax and enters the superior vena cava just before it joins the heart.
Veins Draining into the Inferior Vena Cava
The inferior vena cava, which is much longer than the superior vena cava, returns blood to the heart from all body regions below the diaphragm.
• Tibial veins. The anterior and posterior tibial veins and the fibular vein drain the leg; the posterior tibial veins becomes the popliteal vein at the knee and then the femoral vein in the thighthe femoral vein becomes the external iliac vein as it enters the pelvis.

• Great saphenous veins. The great saphenous veins are the longest veins in the body; they begin at the dorsal venous arch in the foot and travel up the medial aspect of the leg to empty into the femoral vein in the thigh.

• Common iliac vein. Each common iliac vein is formed by the union of the external iliac vein and the internal iliac vein which drains the pelvis.

• Gonadal vein. The right gonadal vein drains the right o***y in females and the right testicles in males; the left gonadal veins empties into the left renal veins superiorly.

• Renal veins. The right and left renal veins drain the kidneys.

• Hepatic portal vein. The hepatic portal vein is a single vein that drains the digestive tract organs and carries this blood through the liver before it enters the systemic circulation.

• Hepatic veins. The hepatic veins drain the liver.

Arterial Branches of the Ascending Aorta

The aorta springs upward from the left ventricle of heart as the ascending aorta.

• Coronary arteries. The only branches of the ascending aorta are the right and left coronary arteries, which serve the heart.

Arterial Branches of the Aortic Arch

The aorta arches to the left as the aortic arch.

• Brachiocephalic trunk. The brachiocephalic trunk, the first branch off the aortic arch, splits into the right common carotid artery and right subclavian artery.

• Left common carotid artery. The left common carotid artery is the second branch off the aortic arch and it divides, forming the left internal carotid, which serves the brain, and the left external carotid, which serves the skin and muscles of the head and neck.

• Left subclavian artery. The third branch of the aortic arch, the left subclavian artery, gives off an important branch- the vertebral artery, which serves part of the brain.

• Axillary artery. In the axilla, the subclavian artery becomes the axillary artery.

• Brachial artery. the subclavian artery continues into the arm as the brachial artery, which supplies the arm.

• Radial and ulnar arteries. At the elbow, the brachial artery splits to form the radial and ulnar arteries, which serve the forearm.

Arterial Branches of the Thoracic Aorta

The aorta plunges downward through the thorax, following the spine as the thoracic aorta.

• Intercostal arteries. Ten pairs of intercostal arteries supply the muscles of the thorax wall.

Arterial Branches of the Abdominal Aorta

Finally, the aorta passes through the diaphragm into the abdominopelvic cavity, where it becomes the abdominal aorta.

• Celiac trunk. The celiac trunk is the first branch of the abdominal aorta and has three branches: the left gastric artery supplies the stomach; the splenic artery supplies the spleen, and the common hepatic artery supplies the liver.

Tunica intima. The tunica intima, which lines the lumen, or interior, of the vessels, is a thin layer of endothelium resting on a basement membrane and decreases friction as blood flows through the vessel lumen.
• Tunica media. The tunica media is the bulky middle coat which mostly consists of smooth muscle and elastic fibers that constrict or dilate, making the blood pressure increase or decrease.
• Tunica externa. The tunica externa is the outermost tunic composed largely of fibrous connective tissue, and its function is basically to support and protect the vessels.